Rise of the Machines

A Cybernetic History — Key Points

Embedded images and extracted text for pages 288–368 (“Illustrations”) from the user‑provided PDF.

War & Control Cybernetics Automation Cyborgs Counterculture Cyberspace Crypto‑Anarchy Surveillance & War

Rise of the Machines (Introduction)

  • Cybernetics as ideology shaped by war, industry, and culture.
  • Recurring techno‑myths met cycles of backlash.
  • Interrogate promises; design for failure modes.

1. Control and Communication at War

  • Real‑time feedback systems linked sensors, operators, and weapons (e.g., SAGE).
  • Command‑and‑control foreshadowed networking and data fusion.
  • Wartime labs seeded postwar cybernetics.

2. Cybernetics

  • Wiener, Ashby, Bateson: feedback/control across organisms and machines.
  • Macy conferences spread cross‑disciplinary systems thinking.
  • Human–tool–environment reframed as a loop.

3. Automation

  • 1950s–60s: job‑loss fears vs. abundance promises.
  • Popular culture critiqued machine‑managed society.
  • Debates extended to theology and self‑replication.

4. Organisms

  • From servomechanisms to cyborgs; blurred human/machine boundaries.
  • Ergonomics tuned human–machine performance loops.
  • Tools as extensions of the self.

5. Culture

  • Counterculture adopted systems for personal agency/community.
  • Whole Earth Catalog packaged ‘access to tools’.
  • Art and design operationalized cybernetics.

6. Space

  • Whole Earth from orbit vs. disembodied cyberspace.
  • VR experiments; cyberpunk aesthetics.
  • Open frontier ideals vs. proprietary realities.

7. Anarchy

  • Crypto‑anarchists: math/protocols reshape power.
  • Radical proposals exposed political edges of code.
  • Leaks and FOIA contested secrecy.

8. War

  • 1990s+: digital war, surveillance, mass collection.
  • Hope/fear intertwined in defense rhetoric.
  • Capabilities often lagged grand claims.

9. Fall of the Machines

  • Cycle: utopia → backlash; myths mutate.
  • Historical depth clarifies AI/crypto debates.
  • Design with failure and trade‑offs in view.

Illustration — Page 288

Illustration page 288 from the book
Illustrations
Illustrations
US Army Air Force B-17G Flying Fortress, with ventral ball turret,
dropping its bombs in 1944/45.

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 288.

Illustration — Page 289

Illustration page 289 from the book
The merging of human and machine, made more urgent by warfare on an
The merging of human and machine, made more urgent by warfare on an
industrial scale, was best captured by Alfred Crimi, an Italian-born
modernist painter working for the Sperry Corporation, here in aturret
drawing, 1943. Courtesy of Northrop Grumman Corporation.

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 289.

Illustration — Page 290

Illustration page 290 from the book
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Source: user‑provided PDF, page 290.

Illustration — Page 291

Illustration page 291 from the book
The trailer version of the SCR-584 automatic tracking radar, a system
The trailer version of the SCR-584 automatic tracking radar, a system
designed for fire control in air defense and used by the British Anti-
Aircraft Command against German V-1 attacks at the end of World War
II, as conceived by a US Army artist.

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 291.

Illustration — Page 292

Illustration page 292 from the book
The world’s first cruise missile was the German buzz bomb, or V-1. To
The world’s first cruise missile was the German buzz bomb, or V-1. To
contemporaries, it was a robot. In 1944, a “war of the robots”—in the
words of the head of the British air defense—ensued over the English
Channel.

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 292.

Illustration — Page 293

Illustration page 293 from the book
The SCR-584 had 140 vacuum tubes, weighed 10 tons, and cost about
The SCR-584 had 140 vacuum tubes, weighed 10 tons, and cost about
$100,000. Combined with the new proximity “VT” fuse, the SCR-584
offered an effective defense against the V-1.

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 293.

Illustration — Page 294

Illustration page 294 from the book
One of the secret “sea forts” positioned by theRoyal Navy in the Thames
One of the secret “sea forts” positioned by theRoyal Navy in the Thames
Estuary during World War II to protect London. The forts werean effective
defense against German attacks.

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 294.

Illustration — Page 295

Illustration page 295 from the book
Norbert Wiener’s initial cybernetic research was a $2,325 defense contract
Norbert Wiener’s initial cybernetic research was a $2,325 defense contract
approved in December 1940. Here, Wiener (center) is pictured withtwo
senior army officers: Brigadier General Leonard Greely (left) and Colonel
Donald B. Diehl (right).

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 295.

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Illustration page 296 from the book
In the summer of 1946, Wiener coined the term “cybernetics” from the
In the summer of 1946, Wiener coined the term “cybernetics” from the
Greek kubernetes, for “steersman,” inspired by observing man-machine
servomechanical systems at war.

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 296.

Illustration — Page 297

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W. Ross Ashby was an early British cyberneticist and innovator. He built
W. Ross Ashby was an early British cyberneticist and innovator. He built
the homeostat in 1946, a contraption then touted as the world’s first
“thinking machine,” based on Royal Air Force bomb switches.

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 298.

Illustration — Page 299

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Illustration page 300 from the book
Ashby’s homeostat was not just self-adaptive, but both system and
Ashby’s homeostat was not just self-adaptive, but both system and
environment at the same time. At a 1953 meeting, the machine deeply
impressed Gregory Bateson, who became a key figure in counterculture.

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 300.

Illustration — Page 301

Illustration page 301 from the book
Ashby with his homeostat. The machine’s purpose was to do nothing, to
Ashby with his homeostat. The machine’s purpose was to do nothing, to
remain in balance when disturbed.

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 301.

Illustration — Page 302

Illustration page 302 from the book
Ashby’s laboratory at Barnwood House, a mental hospitalnear Gloucester,
Ashby’s laboratory at Barnwood House, a mental hospitalnear Gloucester,
in the English West Country.

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 302.

Illustration — Page 303

Illustration page 303 from the book
Wiener in a classroom at MIT in May 1949 with the primitive robot
Wiener in a classroom at MIT in May 1949 with the primitive robot
known as Palomilla. The photographer was Alfred Eisenstaedt, famous for
the image of the sailor kissing a nurse in Times Square on V-J Day.

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 303.

Illustration — Page 304

Illustration page 304 from the book
Julian Bigelow (far left) and John von Neumann (far right) closely
Julian Bigelow (far left) and John von Neumann (far right) closely
collaborated with Wiener. Also pictured are Herman Goldstine (second
left), one of the original ENIAC developers; and Robert Oppenheimer
(second right), “father” of the atomic bomb. They stand in front of the IAS
computer that was used in the American hydrogen bomb project.

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 304.

Illustration — Page 305

Illustration page 305 from the book
J. C. R. Licklider, a pivotal computer science pioneer, took part in
J. C. R. Licklider, a pivotal computer science pioneer, took part in
Wiener’s early cybernetic discussion circles in Boston.

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 305.

Illustration — Page 306

Illustration page 306 from the book
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Source: user‑provided PDF, page 306.

Illustration — Page 307

Illustration page 307 from the book
The US Air Force’s response to the Soviet bomber threat was theSemi-
The US Air Force’s response to the Soviet bomber threat was theSemi-
Automatic Ground Environment (SAGE), which logged the course, speed,
altitude, and location of all aircraft flying over North America at any given
moment. The first sector at McGuire Air Force Base near Trenton, New
Jersey, became operational in July 1958.

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 307.

Illustration — Page 308

Illustration page 308 from the book
One of SAGE’s many innovations was the light gun, a new input device
One of SAGE’s many innovations was the light gun, a new input device
and ancestor of the touch screen. SAGE was an inspiration for science
fiction; the war room in Stanley Kubrik’s Dr. Strangelove is one example.

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 308.

Illustration — Page 309

Illustration page 309 from the book
The interior of SAGE Combat Center CC-01 at Hancock Field, New York.
The interior of SAGE Combat Center CC-01 at Hancock Field, New York.

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 309.

Illustration — Page 310

Illustration page 310 from the book
Fear of push-button war and of losing labor to machines was ripein the
Fear of push-button war and of losing labor to machines was ripein the
1950s, as Leslie Illingworth’s “Friend or Foe?” cartoon in theJune 29,
1955, issue of Punch magazine intimates. Copyright Punch Limited.

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 310.

Illustration — Page 311

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Illustration — Page 312

Illustration page 312 from the book
The world’s first cyborg was a rat in a lab at Rockland State Hospital, New
The world’s first cyborg was a rat in a lab at Rockland State Hospital, New
York, in 1960.

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 312.

Illustration — Page 313

Illustration page 313 from the book
Manfred Clynes, the researcher who came up with the cyborg idea, had
Manfred Clynes, the researcher who came up with the cyborg idea, had
this framed image in his office for years. The picture, by space-age
illustrator Fred Freeman, a World War II navy veteran, was published in
Life magazine on July 11, 1960.

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 313.

Illustration — Page 314

Illustration page 314 from the book
Alice Mary Hilton—an author, organizer, and acolyte of Norbert Wiener
Alice Mary Hilton—an author, organizer, and acolyte of Norbert Wiener
—was one of the most passionate and eloquent proponents of automation.
By 1963, Hilton worked hard to bring about the “age of cyberculture.”

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 314.

Illustration — Page 315

Illustration page 315 from the book
By late 1969, the US Army hoped to use the four-legged walking truckto
By late 1969, the US Army hoped to use the four-legged walking truckto
carry loads and weapons into the jungles of Vietnam, through ditchesand
slopes impassable by wheeled vehicles.

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 315.

Illustration — Page 316

Illustration page 316 from the book
An unidentified model poses in the gentle grips of the 80-ton Electric
An unidentified model poses in the gentle grips of the 80-ton Electric
Beetle, one of the feedback-driven cybernetic anthropomorphous
machines(or CAMs) built in 1962 by General Electric for the US Air Force
tohandle radioactive material for nuclear aircraft propulsion.

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 316.

Illustration — Page 317

Illustration page 317 from the book
The US Army’s Pedipulator, built in 1964, was a study of a two-legged
The US Army’s Pedipulator, built in 1964, was a study of a two-legged
walking machine manufactured by General Electric.

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 317.

Illustration — Page 318

Illustration page 318 from the book
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Illustration — Page 319

Illustration page 319 from the book
Handyman—“man” stood for “manipulator”—tried to combine man and
Handyman—“man” stood for “manipulator”—tried to combine man and
machine into “an intimate, symbiotic unit that will perform essentially as
one wedded system,” wrote GE’s Ralph Mosher (left) in 1967.

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 319.

Illustration — Page 320

Illustration page 320 from the book
Hardiman, a man-augmentation system built for the US Navy around
Hardiman, a man-augmentation system built for the US Navy around
1970, had thirty powered joints and could lift its own weight plus 1,500
pounds.

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 320.

Illustration — Page 321

Illustration page 321 from the book
Anthropologist and social theorist Gregory Bateson was part of the
Anthropologist and social theorist Gregory Bateson was part of the
original cybernetic Macy conferences and later applied cybernetics on a
higher level, articulating his theory in the 1972 cult book Steps to an
Ecology of Mind.
Barry Schwartz Photography.

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 321.

Illustration — Page 322

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322

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Illustration — Page 323

Illustration page 323 from the book
The first issue of Stewart Brand’s Whole Earth Catalog was published in
The first issue of Stewart Brand’s Whole Earth Catalog was published in
1968. It was meant to be a printed feedback loop for back-to-the-land
communards, and it reviewed six books on cybernetics.

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 323.

Illustration — Page 324

Illustration page 324 from the book
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Illustration — Page 325

Illustration page 325 from the book
Stewart Brand (left) and company play with the Earth Ball at the New
Stewart Brand (left) and company play with the Earth Ball at the New
Games, an event that Brand organized in California, October 1, 1973.©
Ted Streshinsky/CORBIS.

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 325.

Illustration — Page 326

Illustration page 326 from the book
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326

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 326.

Illustration — Page 327

Illustration page 327 from the book
Stewart Brand holds a copy of the Whole Earth Catalog on July 6,
Stewart Brand holds a copy of the Whole Earth Catalog on July 6,
1984.That same year, he launched the Whole Earth ’Lectronic Link, or
WELL, the first real computerized social network. © Roger
Ressmeyer/CORBIS.

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 327.

Illustration — Page 328

Illustration page 328 from the book
The US Air Force pioneered the concept of “virtual space” in the late
The US Air Force pioneered the concept of “virtual space” in the late
1970s. Staff Sergeant Vernon Wells is shown here with the visually
coupled airborne systems simulator (VCASS) at the Armstrong Aerospace
Medical Research Laboratory at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, June 1,
1985.

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 328.

Illustration — Page 329

Illustration page 329 from the book
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329

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Illustration — Page 330

Illustration page 330 from the book
Typical computer-generated imagery projected inside thepilot’s helmet of
Typical computer-generated imagery projected inside thepilot’s helmet of
the VCASS.

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 330.

Illustration — Page 331

Illustration page 331 from the book
Timothy Leary speaking at the Barbizon Hotel in Amsterdam on May 10,
Timothy Leary speaking at the Barbizon Hotel in Amsterdam on May 10,
1987. The psychedelics pioneer and counterculture guru of the 1960s had
discovered the computer as a mind-expanding device in the early 1980s.

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 331.

Illustration — Page 332

Illustration page 332 from the book
These psychedelic Buddha screens illustrated Timothy Leary’s 1988
These psychedelic Buddha screens illustrated Timothy Leary’s 1988
announcement in Reality Hackers magazine: reality no longerhad a
monopoly on stimulation in the “post-industrial cyber-era.”It was the first
text on the new virtual-reality trend.

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 332.

Illustration — Page 333

Illustration page 333 from the book
Science fiction author William Gibson. In a 1982 short story, he coined the
Science fiction author William Gibson. In a 1982 short story, he coined the
term “cyberspace” to describe the virtual space inside machines.

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 333.

Illustration — Page 334

Illustration page 334 from the book
Mondo 2000, a San Francisco underground magazine, shaped the
Mondo 2000, a San Francisco underground magazine, shaped the
cyberpunk aesthetic between 1989 and 1993. It linked psychedelic drugs,
virtual reality, and the rise of computer networks, as this typical
illustration shows.

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 334.

Illustration — Page 335

Illustration page 335 from the book
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335

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 335.

Illustration — Page 336

Illustration page 336 from the book
The group attending Michael Benedikt’s Cyberconf, May 1990. Of note in
The group attending Michael Benedikt’s Cyberconf, May 1990. Of note in
this photo are John Perry Barlow (tall in the first row); to Barlow’s left,
Sandy Stone; to Barlow’s right, Howard Rheingold, and then gaming
theorist Brenda Laurel, followed by Michael and Amelie Benedikt. Behind
the Benedikts stands Nicole Stenger, and behind her are Habitat pioneers
Chip Morningstar and Randy Farmer.

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 336.

Illustration — Page 337

Illustration page 337 from the book
French virtual-reality artist Nicole Stenger, in VPL gear. Stenger gaveone
French virtual-reality artist Nicole Stenger, in VPL gear. Stenger gaveone
of the most widely read presentations at Cyberconf: “Mind Isa Leaking
Rainbow.”

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 337.

Illustration — Page 338

Illustration page 338 from the book
Jaron Lanier, founder of the virtual-reality company VPL, wearing one of
Jaron Lanier, founder of the virtual-reality company VPL, wearing one of
the company’s prototypes, the head-mounted display as an output device.

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 338.

Illustration — Page 339

Illustration page 339 from the book
Virtual-reality gloves and full-body data suit prototypes developed by
Virtual-reality gloves and full-body data suit prototypes developed by
VPL. Lanier envisioned goggles, gloves, and suits as the future of human-
machine interaction, enabling users to “enter” cyberspace.

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 339.

Illustration — Page 340

Illustration page 340 from the book
A full-body data suit by VPL.
A full-body data suit by VPL.

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 340.

Illustration — Page 341

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341

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Illustration — Page 342

Illustration page 342 from the book
A data suit diagram by VPL.
A data suit diagram by VPL.

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 342.

Illustration — Page 343

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343

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 343.

Illustration — Page 344

Illustration page 344 from the book
An early virtual-reality machine, similar to the devices on display at
An early virtual-reality machine, similar to the devices on display at
theWhole Earth Institute’s Cyberthon in October 1990.

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 344.

Illustration — Page 345

Illustration page 345 from the book
A Mondo 2000 illustration of “cyberspace,” the “new frontier” that could
A Mondo 2000 illustration of “cyberspace,” the “new frontier” that could
be “colonized.” The virtual open range inside the machine was a mythical
dimension where physics, laws, and identities would have new meanings,
with its walls held up by cryptography.

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 345.

Illustration — Page 346

Illustration page 346 from the book
One of the most persistent topics of human-machine interaction in
One of the most persistent topics of human-machine interaction in
cyberspace was sex. In the summer of 1990, colorful writer Howard
Rheingold coined the memorable term “teledildonics” to describe futuristic
forms of bodily interaction through machine interfaces.

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 346.

Illustration — Page 347

Illustration page 347 from the book
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347

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 347.

Illustration — Page 348

Illustration page 348 from the book
Mondo 2000’s guide to cyberpunk, laced with irony.
Mondo 2000’s guide to cyberpunk, laced with irony.

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 348.

Illustration — Page 349

Illustration page 349 from the book
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349

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Illustration — Page 350

Illustration page 350 from the book
Former Wyoming cattle rancher, Grateful Dead lyricist, and gifted writer
Former Wyoming cattle rancher, Grateful Dead lyricist, and gifted writer
John Perry Barlow was one of the most charismatic figures “in
cyberspace” in the early 1990s. He covered and shaped the early tech
counterculture and cofounded the Electronic Frontier Foundation.

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 350.

Illustration — Page 351

Illustration page 351 from the book
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351

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Illustration — Page 352

Illustration page 352 from the book
In a military library in Virginia, EFF cofounder John Gilmore discovered a
In a military library in Virginia, EFF cofounder John Gilmore discovered a
coveted classified document that the NSA had refused to release to him,
and he confronted the government. Here he celebrates his victory in late
1992.

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 352.

Illustration — Page 353

Illustration page 353 from the book
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353

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 353.

Illustration — Page 354

Illustration page 354 from the book
Timothy C. May, an early Intel employee, was the most eloquent
Timothy C. May, an early Intel employee, was the most eloquent
cypherpunk and one of the most radical. He wrote the “Crypto Anarchist
Manifesto,” came up with BlackNet in August 1993, and coined phrases
like “crypto = guns.”

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 354.

Illustration — Page 355

Illustration page 355 from the book
Tim May (left), John Gilmore (right), and Eric Hughes, who appeared
Tim May (left), John Gilmore (right), and Eric Hughes, who appeared
wearing these masks on the cover of Wired magazine’s second issue, in
May 1993, their PGP fingerprints written on their foreheads.

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 355.

Illustration — Page 356

Illustration page 356 from the book
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356

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 356.

Illustration — Page 357

Illustration page 357 from the book
Ryan Lackey, inspired by the cypherpunks, ran HavenCo, a desolate
Ryan Lackey, inspired by the cypherpunks, ran HavenCo, a desolate
anarchist server platform in the North Sea, starting in late 1999.

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 357.

Illustration — Page 358

Illustration page 358 from the book
HavenCo operated from Roughs Tower, a repurposed old World War IIsea
HavenCo operated from Roughs Tower, a repurposed old World War IIsea
fort located about 7 nautical miles off the Suffolk coast.

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 358.

Illustration — Page 359

Illustration page 359 from the book
HavenCo lacked both bandwith and demand from customers. Its server
HavenCo lacked both bandwith and demand from customers. Its server
racks were never full, and the business venture failed. By September 2001,
Lackey operated a cypherpunk remailer from the air defense platform.

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 359.

Illustration — Page 360

Illustration page 360 from the book
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360

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Illustration — Page 361

Illustration page 361 from the book
Owen Davies’s article “Robotic Warriors Clash in Cyberwars,” published
Owen Davies’s article “Robotic Warriors Clash in Cyberwars,” published
in Omni magazine in January 1987, was illustrated with this painting by
Paul Lehr.

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 361.

Illustration — Page 362

Illustration page 362 from the book
Businessman, author, and organizer Winn Schwartau coined the phrase
Businessman, author, and organizer Winn Schwartau coined the phrase
“electronic Pearl Harbor” in January 1991. This illustration by Harry
Whitver conveys Schwartau’s conception of the new security threats.

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 362.

Illustration — Page 363

Illustration page 363 from the book
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Source: user‑provided PDF, page 363.

Illustration — Page 364

Illustration page 364 from the book
This photo of an aviator’s night vision system illustrated a 1992 Bulletin of
This photo of an aviator’s night vision system illustrated a 1992 Bulletin of
the Atomic Scientists article that predicted “cyberwar,” described as war
fought through “robots” and autonomous weapons.

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 364.

Illustration — Page 365

Illustration page 365 from the book
Deputy Secretary of Defense John Hamre, announcing on August 11,
Deputy Secretary of Defense John Hamre, announcing on August 11,
1999, the creation of the Pentagon’s Joint Task Force-Computer Network
Defense (JTC-CND), the unit that would come to lead the Moonlight Maze
investigation.

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 365.

Illustration — Page 366

Illustration page 366 from the book
The trove of files taken by the Moonlight Maze attackers was vast—“as
The trove of files taken by the Moonlight Maze attackers was vast—“as
high as the Washington Monument,” if piled up, said an internal
government report in 1999.

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 366.

Illustration — Page 367

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Illustration — Page 368

Illustration page 368 from the book
By late 1998, the Moonlight Maze investigation was so labor-intensive and
By late 1998, the Moonlight Maze investigation was so labor-intensive and
stressful that members of the FBI’s coordination group made their own T-
shirt as a souvenir, with “Byte Back!” printed on the back.

Source: user‑provided PDF, page 368.

Sources & Further Reading